Greek poetry of the Hellenistic period (3rd - 2nd century BC), centred on the city of Alexandria in Egypt, which influenced Roman poets of the 1st century BC. Learned allusions were characteristic of Alexandrianism.

Repetition of the same consonant or sound, usually at the beginning of two or more words near to each other or closely connected. The effect is to create a sound pattern, which may link words together or stress them. The effect is sometimes onomatopoeic, i.e. the sound of the letters imitates the sound of the thing being described.

Pallasne ... potuit ... pontō (39–40)

Repetition of the same word(s) at the beginning of successive sentences, clauses or phrases. The effect may be to emphasize a word or phrase or connect it to a previous one.

hīc illius arma, hīc currus fuit (16–17)

See Inversion

A word, form or expression no longer in current use, but used in poetry. The effect may be to add solemnity or grandeur.

superum for superōrum (4)

Words, phrases or clauses are placed next to each other with no connecting word such as sed or et. The effect may be to make a strong contrast.

An arrangement of words in which the second phrase reverses the order of the first. In its simplest form, there are two pairs of words (e.g. a noun and an adjective) arranged in the order abba.

luctantēs ventōs tempestātēsque sonōrās (adj-noun noun-adj) (53)

A metrical term for when the metrical stress (ictus) and the natural stress of a word (accent) fall on different syllables. In normal speech Latin words have a stress on certain syllables (the accent). In poetry there is an additional stress imposed by the metre (the ictus), which falls on the first element of the metrical foot.

luctantēs ventōs tempestātēsque sonōrās (53)

A metrical foot composed of a long element followed by two short elements ( — ⏑ ⏑ ).

A dactylic line is one which has a predominance of dactyls. An accumulation of dactyls has the effect of giving a light, quick sound to the verse. (117)

A metrical term to denote a vowel sound at the end of a word being assimilated to a vowel sound at the beginning of the following word.

The running over of the sense from one line of verse to the next without a pause. In contrast, a line of verse with a pause at the end is ‘end-stopped’. (10–11)

Repetition of a word or phrase after intervening matter. (109)

A long poem narrating the deeds of heroes or the history of a nation. Vergil’s Aeneid is an epic poem, influenced by its Greek forerunners the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer.

A single compound idea is expressed as if it were two separate ideas - hendiadys is a Greek word meaning ‘one by means of two’.

ob noxam et furiās = ob noxam furiōsam (41)

A metrical term. The absence of elision. When a word ending in a vowel (or m) is followed by a word beginning with a vowel (or h), the vowel at the end of the first word is usually elided, i.e. it is struck off and is not pronounced. (16)

A present tense used to refer to actions that happen in the past. The historic present is often used by Roman writers; it is often best translated as a past tense in English. The effect of using the historic present tense is to make events more vivid or immediate.

Exaggeration. The effect is often to give emphasis.

Two adjective + noun pairs where the adjectives are not placed next to the nouns they agree with.

saevae memorem Iūnōnis ob īram (4)

A verb that is used without a direct object e.g. “I ran as quickly as I could”. In Latin some verbs which are usually transitive (i.e. they have a direct object in the accusative case) are used intransitively.

spūmās ruēbant = ‘were churning up the foam’ (35). ruō usually means ‘move quickly’, ‘rush’.

Reversal of the usual word order. A particular type of inversion is the reversal of the usual order of subject and verb.

Ītaliam contrā (13)

intonuēre polī (90)

Words placed next to each other to achieve a striking effect, perhaps emphasis or contrast.

Karthāgō, Ītaliam (13)

One thing, idea or action is referred to by a word normally referring to another thing, idea or action.

iactātus (3)

A word or expression is replaced by one closely associated with it, or a quality of a thing is used to denote the thing itself.

arma (weapons) for ‘war’. (1)

aere (bronze) for ‘prow’. (35)

The use of words that seem to imitate the sound of the thing that is being described.

magnō cum murmure montis (55)

The quality in a piece of literature that produces pity or sadness in the reader.

A name derived from the name of a father or ancestor, often with the ending -idēs. In Greek the suffix -idēs denotes ‘son of’.

Aeacidae (99)

Referring to animals, things, or abstract qualities as if they are human.

memorem ... īram (4)

Repetition of an idea in different words for emphasis.

dīves opum (14)

The use of a plural form to refer to a single thing.

tantae ... īrae (11)

An addition to the beginning of a word to adjust its meaning. Often the prefix is a preposition.

A preface or introduction to a poem or speech or other literary work. (1–7)

The art of speaking or writing persuasively. The Greeks and Romans regarded rhetoric as a very important aspect of education and public life. Rhetorical techniques used by Virgil include anaphora, asyndeton, rhetorical questions, and many more. (99–100)

A question that is not expected to have an answer or to which the answer is assumed. The question is asked for persuasive effect, the speaker implying that the answer is obvious.

et quisquam nūmen Iūnōnis adōrat praetereā aut supplex ārīs impōnet honōrem? (48–9)

A circular structure; the end of a passage returns to the opening idea. The effect is to frame the passage and make it a unity.

arma ... Rōmae, hīs ... gente (1–7, 29–33)

A kind of alliteration in which letters which have a hissing sound, especially s, are repeated close together. The effect is sometimes onomatopoeic.

spūmās salis (35)

A form of monologue in which the only person spoken to is the audience or reader; a literary representation of talking to oneself. Soliloquy is a way of revealing the thoughts and feelings of a character to the reader or audience. (37–49)

An adjective (or participle) is separated from the noun it agrees with by another word or phrase. This arrangement of words is common in Latin poetry.

altae moenia Rōmae (7)

scopulōque īnfīxit acūtō (45)

Tyriās ōlim quae verteret arcēs (20)

A spondaic line is one which has a predominance of spondees. An accumulation of spondees has the effect of giving a heavy, slow sound to the verse. (118)

A metrical foot composed of two heavy elements ( — — ).

A contracted form of a word.

repostum = repositum (24)

Using the name of part of a thing to stand for the thing itself, or vice versa

Argīs = Greece (24)

A metrical term. Two vowels normally pronounced separately are run together; they are pronounced as one syllable and scanned as one element.

Lāvīniă (2)

The repetition of an idea in different words. The effect is sometimes emphatic.

ventōs tempestātēsque (53)

An adjective (epithet) is attached grammatically to one noun, but belongs in sense to another.

memorem Iūnōnis ... īram (4)

A sentence or part of a sentence composed of three units; the unit may be a word, phrase or clause. Often the units are successively longer, and the third has more weight: a tricolon crescendo.

hīc illius arma, hīc currus fuit; hoc rēgnum dea gentibus esse (16–17)